Read the text and write a short brief using the following phrases:

The article is devoted ….. Статья посвящена….
The article deals (is concerned) with …. Статья касается….
The article touches upon the issues of….. Статья затрагивает проблемы……
The article is about….. Статья о…..
The purpose (aim) of the article is….. Цель статьи….
Much attention is given to….. Большое внимание уделено…..
It is reported that…. Сообщается, что….
It is spoken in detail about…. Рассказано в деталях….
The article gives a detailed analysis of…… Статья дает детальный анализ….
The following conclusions are drawn…. Следующие выводы сделаны….



Programming is the process of writing a program using a computer language. A program is a set of instructions which a computer uses to do a specific task (e.g. a solution to a Maths problem).
The only language a PC can directly execute is machine code, which consists of 1s and 0s. This language is difficult to write, so we use symbolic languages that are easier to understand. For example, assembly languages use abbreviations such as ADD, SUB, MPY to represent instructions. The program is then translated into machine code by software called an assembler.
Machine code and assembly languages are called low-level languages because they are closer to the hardware.
High-level languages, however, are closer to human languages; they use forms resembling English, which makes programming easier. The program is translated into machine code by software called a compiler. Some examples are:
- FORTRAN - used for scientific and mathematical applications
- COBOL - popular for business applications
- BASIC - used as a teaching language; Visual BASIC is now used to create Windows applications
- C - used to write system software, graphics and commercial programs
- Java - designed to run on the Web; Java applets are small programs that run automatically on web pages and let you watch animated characters, and play music and games.
The languages used to create Web documents are called markup languages; they use instructions (markups) to format and link text files. Examples are:
- HTML - the code used to create Web pages
- VoiceXML - it makes Internet content accessible via speech recognition and phone. Instead of using a web browser on a PC, you use a telephone to access voice-equipped websites. You just dial the phone number of the website and then give spoken instructions, commands, and get the required information.

Steps in writing a program
To write a program, software developers usually follow these steps.
First they try to understand the problem and define the purpose of the program.
· They design a flowchart, a diagram which shows the successive logical steps of the program.
· Next they write the instructions in a high-level language (Pascal, C, etc.). This is called coding. The program is then compiled.
· When the program is written, they test it: they run the program to see if it works and use special tools to detect bugs, or errors. Any errors are corrected until it runs smoothly. This is called debugging, or bug fixing.
· Finally, software companies write a detailed description of how the program works, called program documentation. They also have a maintenance program. They get reports from users about any errors found in the program. After it has been improved, it is published as an updated version.